Primates

Alpha Herpes Virus (Herpesvirus simiae, Cercopithecine herpesvirus1) is a virus which occurs naturally in Macaque monkeys and possibly other old world monkeys. The Alpha Herpes Virus produces a very mild disease in monkeys and can show no obvious evidence of infection. Some monkeys may show vesicles (small blisters) which can lead to mouth ulcers, facial, genital and eye lesions.

The lesions heal spontaneously after a few days but the virus resides permanently in the monkey and can periodically be reactivated and cause more ulcerative lesions. These relapses are more common when the monkey is “stressed”, they look similar to ‘cold sores’ found in humans. The virus is shed into the environment where lesions are present, but can also be shed by monkeys with no visible lesions or symptoms. Transmission to humans can occur by exposure to infected monkey saliva, secretions or tissues. Common routes of transmission are usually bites, scratches or splashes. Human infection with this virus is often fatal and further human to human infection has been documented.

An antibody test is available to test for AHV, the sample required is serum.

SIV is a retrovirus that can be found in numerous strains in primates. The specific strains infecting humans are HIV-1 and HIV-2, the viruses that cause AIDS.

The origin of HIV is now generally attributed to SIV, originally from African primates.

HIV-2 is most closely related to the SIV strain that primarily infects Sooty Mangabeys, whilst HIV-1 is closely related to the chimpanzee strain of SIV. The most likely route of transmission to humans was thought to be from the blood of chimps, hunted for bushmeat in Africa.

SIV monkey strains are transmitted sexually and usually do not cause AIDS in their natural hosts. SIV strains may cause an AIDS like immune deficiency (Simian acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) if they cross species boundaries.

The monkey SIV strains do not infect humans and HIV-1 does not infect monkeys, this is due to an intracellular protein which has different variants in humans and monkeys, which recognize the capsid of various retroviruses and blocks their reproduction. However, researchers have created various HIV-SIV chimeras, which are referred to as SHIV. An antibody test is available to test for SIV, sample required is serum.

Simian Retrovirus Type D infects and causes an immunosuppressive disease in captive and wild macaque monkeys.

The overall prevalence of this virus is about 5-7% and the mortality rate about 30-50%. Direct contact between infected and susceptible animals or direct parental exposure to infectious blood or tissue is the main transmission route. Since inapparent carriers have been reported (virus + antibody -), serology for antibody alone may not always determine a complete SRV status. An antibody test is available to test for SRV-D, the sample required is serum.

STLV is closely related to the human HTLV 1 virus. The clinical, haematological and histopathological characteristics of this disease in infected monkeys are very similar to those of adult human T-cell leukemia. This disease in mostly associated with African Green Monkeys and Asian Rhesus Macaques. An antibody test is available for STLV-1, the sample required is serum.

• Hepatitis A – Both humans and non human primates have been found to be a reservoir for this virus and infection may be inapparent. Transmission is by the faecal/oral route and several cases of primate to human infection have been reported.
• Hepatitis B – There are six well characterized genotypes (A-F) of human Hepatitis B virus that have distinct geographic ranges which generally relate to chronic HBV infection, also recently a genotype G has been discovered. Hepatitis B has been found in all the Old World Great Apes (Orangutans, Gibbons, Gorillas and Chimpanzees) and from a New World Woolly Monkey. The Hepatitis B virus is highly infectious and is carried in all bodily fluids. Incubation period is 6 weeks to 6 months. Clinical signs include anorexia, fever, sickness, jaundice and skin rashes.
• Hepatitis C – Spontaneous infections in primates have not been readily reported, but they can be infected experimentally and further emergence is to be expected.

Note: Human vaccination against Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B is readily available and should be taken up by all people in regular contact with primates.

Tests available for Hepatitis are:

• Hepatitis A antibody test
• Hepatitis B antigen test – diagnostic
• Hepatitis C antibody test
• All Hepatitis tests require serum.

Giardia, Trichomonas, Balantidium and Entamoeba are all common protozoan infections seen in Primates.

Diagnosis of the above can be confirmed in faecal flotations.

Diagnosis of the above can be confirmed in faecal flotations.

Yersinia, Shigella, Salmonella and Campylobacter are commonly seen in Primates.

Yersinia is more prevalent in autumn, the source of infection is usually via foodstuffs contaminated by wild birds or rodents.

Diagnosis of the above can be confirmed via faecal culture.

Troponin I is a protein found in the myocardium, however it should not be present in normal blood samples.

When the heart muscle becomes damaged, Troponin I is released into the bloodstream; as heart damage increases, greater amounts of Troponin I are released. It is regarded as the marker of choice in the diagnosis of Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI).

Pro-BNP, or B-type natriuretic peptide, is an inactive peptide, released alongside the active hormone BNP, when the walls of the heart are stretched, specifically the left ventricle. Increases in this marker will occur in animals with congestive heart failure as the left ventricle is working harder to pump blood round the body.

Troponin I is the marker of choice for the diagnosis of heart damage as a result of AMI. However, Pro-BNP is a more quantitative biochemical marker related to the extent of infarction and left ventricular systolic dysfunction. The level of Pro-BNP is an important predictor of cardiovascular events in patients with acute coronary syndrome.

Here at PALS we offer Express Troponin I and ProBNP testing for Primates, with same day results!

Early diagnosis detects levels of cardiac damage in Primates, our quick turnaround enables a treatment regime to be implemented quickly, giving the best possible long-term outcome.

This test is aimed at Old World Monkeys, a group of primates that are divided into two subfamilies; the Cercopithecinae and the Colobinae. This group of primates live in Africa and Asia and are characterised by having cheek pouches, opposable thumbs, no prehensile tail and nostrils that are close together, opening either downward or forward, rather than outwards.

For quick diagnosis in cases with suspected cardiac disease, these tests are invaluable to assess the amount and type of myocardial damage, allowing you to implement a treatment plan for your patients that enables the best possible outcome.

Post Mortems are undertaken on most primates, please contact the laboratory for instructions prior to sending.